Poliquin Articles

Research Review #18: Leg Asymmetry Assessment

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

Article Reviewed
?Multidirectional Leg Asymmetry Assessment in Sport.? Jennifer Hewit, MSc, CSCS; John Cronin, PhD; Patria Hume, PhD. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2012 Feb 34(1): 82-86.

Purpose
This article by Hewit and her coauthors looks at peer-reviewed studies on limb asymmetry in sport, the reliability of single-limb assessments, and asymmetry in noninjured and injured athletes.

Background
More than two decades ago I came up with the concept of structural balance, which is a system to assess and correct muscle imbalances that can affect athletic performance and quality of life. I studied the workout systems of athletes in which formulas were used to determine what areas they needed to focus on to perform their best in competition. Structural balance is such an important aspect of training that the first two levels of the PICP (Poliquin International Certification Program) are devoted to structural balance training; Level 1 focuses on upper body structural balance, and Level 2 focuses on lower body structural balance.

In the early days of sports medicine, the most common application of structural balance was to determine the hamstrings-to-quadriceps strength ratio by testing the strength of these muscles with leg extension and leg curl machines. Most physiotherapists recommend a hams-to-quad ratio of 66 percent ? which means that the hamstrings can produce 66 percent of the force of the quadriceps. Incredibly, the ratio of the best sprinters is 125 percent, almost twice the percentage physiotherapists recommend. Structural balance is particularly important in the antagonist/agonist muscle relationship: Weak antagonists send inhibitory signals to the brain that shut down force output in the agonists, which are the prime movers of a movement.

Although leg extension and leg curl machines can be used to test hams-to-quad ratios, they are not necessarily the best way to improve this ratio. When the skiers on the Canadian Olympic team performed only half squats, the average ham/quad ratio was 58 percent. After I had them perform 11 weeks of deep squats, the average ratio rose to 79 percent.

In addition to assessing the strength between agonist and antagonist muscles, it?s also important to assess the strength between limbs to determine asymmetry. This can be done using single-limb tests, such as the ones seen in the level 2 testing protocol.

Procedures
In reviewing the scientific literature on asymmetry, the authors focused on 12 studies that looked at various tests of lower body structural balance. Five of these studies included women subjects. The authors looked at the injury history of the various subjects, and they considered the results of several types of jumps, performed with and without arm movement and on two legs and on single legs. The largest study involved 93 male recreational athletes; and the smallest study evaluated 15 male subjects 15-39 months after unilateral ACL reconstruction.

Results
The authors summarized their review as follows: ?There is no specific magnitude of asymmetry that has been identified in the literature as a definite threshold separating injured and noninjured players or the potential for injury. However, it would seem magnitudes of 15% or more are often associated with players who have recently sustained an injury, whereas magnitudes below 10% are typically reported in noninjured populations. Therefore, an asymmetry threshold of 10-15% or more is thought to place additional strain on the weaker leg, compromising the player?s performance and predisposing the athlete to various injuries.?

Discussion
One aspect of this review I found particularly useful is that the tests involved jumping exercises, which provide a more functional assessment than machines. I am looking forward to seeing a similar study performed on upper body asymmetry, especially on athletes who play ball and racquet sports in which one arm is dominant, such as tennis or baseball.

A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. The article on leg asymmetry assessment is valuable in providing scientific data on how weak links in muscle strength can affect performance and risk of injury.

Foam Rolling 101

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

About 40 years ago a special running shoe was designed for bodybuilders to improve their calf development. Endorsed by pro bodybuilder Boyer Coe, the shoe?s elevated forefoot was designed to produce a greater training effect by forcing a greater stretch upon the calves. The shoes didn?t sell well until an article in Sports Illustrated suggested the shoes could increase an athlete?s vertical jump. Then the product practically jumped off the shelves ? too bad future research showed that the shoes had no effect on vertical jump and in fact put the wearer at a higher risk of injury. The point is that just because a product is popular and sells well doesn?t necessarily mean it fulfills all the claims of its manufacturers and distributors. Another example: foam rollers.

Foam rollers come in various lengths, diameters and densities ? the most popular version is white and measures 6 by 36 inches; the black version is denser than the white and will hold its shape much longer. For more sensitive areas, such as the IT band, a black version may prove too uncomfortable. As an alternative, a medicine ball can be used for many exercises in place of a foam roller.

One of the claims of foam roller distributors is that it creates myofasical release. Facia is an anatomical sheath that compartmentalizes tissues, such as muscles, and also links together all the bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels and organs of the body. It follows that if the fascia is tight, or injured, then this could impair movement and the function of the muscles. Foam rollers are thought to create a reaction from the Golgi tendon organ, causing the muscle spindles to relax; by applying pressure to the fascia, the claim is that the tissue can be elongated. But what does the research say?

Among the claimed benefits of foam rolling are increased flexibility and improvement of athletic performance. Let?s break this down into two specific areas: hamstring flexibility and vertical jump ? I chose these two athletic qualities because research exists on how foam roller training can affect them.

One study on the effects of foam rollers on hamstring flexibility was funded by the University of Wisconsin?La Crosse and published in 2006. It involved 23 college-age men and women with less than optimal hamstring flexibility. The treatment group used the roller three times a week, rolling the hamstring from the ischial tuberosity to the posterior knee. They did 3 reps, each one minute long, with one minute of rest between reps. Here is what the researchers concluded: ?This study revealed no significant difference in the interaction between the treatment and control group?s pre- and post-measurements. The results of this study suggest foam rollers are an ineffective technique for increasing hamstring flexibility over an eight-week time period.?

How about the vertical jump, a basic test of overall power? In a study for a master?s thesis presented in 2011 to Sacred Heart University, nine college-age males with at least one year of experience in performing plyometric training were recruited to see if a foam roller warm-up was superior to a dynamic warm-up in three types of jumps. The dynamic warm-up group was the clear winner, and the author concluded that foam roller warm-ups ??are not recommended prior to physical activity requiring increased neurological activation?.? I should also note that research has shown that static stretching also has a negative effect on vertical jump performance.

Does this mean that foam rollers are a waste of time? Certainly not. Let?s look at one exercise using the foam roller that is extremely valuable for increasing performance in the gym and also improving posture -- especially for those who have developed a "hunchback" from spending too much time in front of a computer.

I like lying on a foam roller lengthwise prior to a workout (see accompanying video) to open up the invertebral spaces and thereby enhance nerve conduction ? this effect can result in a 2-3 percent increase in the loads you can use in training for many exercises. For this reason alone, foam rollers should be a part of every gym serious about producing optimal results.

I?ve found that foam rolling can be a valuable training tool, but just as with the calf shoes, you need to look beyond the commercial hype.

There are 3 main reasons why I use the PB Elite Molded Foam Rollers instead all other foam rollers on the market:
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Training Tips: Farmer?s Walk

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

Although it?s usually a good idea for beginning and intermediate athletes to emulate the biomechanics used by the champions in sports competitions, the farmer?s walk is an exception.

In the farmer?s walk event held in strongman competitions, the lifters use extremely heavy weights. How heavy? Strongman Hugo Girard of Canada, who spoke at our 2010 Eleiko Strength Summit, established a world record in the event when he carried two farmer?s walk cylinders, each weighing 175 kilos, more than 25 meters in just over 21.39 seconds! Such weights can force an athlete into using poor mechanics, such as rounding the shoulders or, to maintain balance, looking downward. For training purposes, you want to maintain an upright position, with your head upright and your shoulders in line with your hips.

It is also a mistake to believe that dumbbells are a good substitute for equipment specially made for the farmer?s walk. Dumbbells will impede your walking mechanics. Further, the dumbbells can bang against your thighs and cause nasty bruises (likewise with kettlebells, although the bruises will be lower on the thigh). Hex bars and trap bars are also poor substitutes because their design can restrict the range of motion of the legs and also create too much stability, thus reducing the training effect on a variety of muscles. Let me expand on this last point.

In sports in which one side of the body is dominant, such as the 200-meter sprint or speedskating, or in which an implement is held, such as golf or tennis, imbalances in the trunk often occur and can affect the horizontal alignment of the pelvis. Such twisting creates shearing forces that can be especially harmful to the lumbar discs.

Although the vertebrae respond well to flexion, extension and lateral side bending, twisting motions can easily tear the rings of fibrous connective tissue that surround the discs and thereby lead to early degenerative disc disease. The farmer?s walk will help correct the structural imbalances in the trunk muscles that can cause such twisting. However, do not perform the farmer?s walk holding just one implement, as the stress to maintain proper posture while walking would be too high. For this reason, it is unwise to squat with an imbalanced load, despite the recommendations of some strength coaches.

Another poor substitute for the farmer?s walk is walking with a barbell across your shoulders. In the 1980s, as a publicity stunt a gym owner walked across the Golden Gate Bridge (from tower to tower) with supposedly 300 pounds across his shoulders. This was a poor replacement for the farmer?s walk, as the compressive forces on the discs are extremely high in comparison, and because this movement does not provide a training effect on the grip and traps.

For the farmer?s walk, a good distance is about 25 meters. If you cannot do this in a straight line, it would be better to walk in a large figure 8 rather than trying to turn with the implements, because this can create tremendous twisting forces on the discs.

If you want to learn how to perform the farmer?s walk properly, I suggest you pick up a copy of Applied Strongman Training for Sport, a book I co-authored with Art McDermott.

Machines vs. Free Weights?

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

Machines vs. free weights? Short answer: free weights. It doesn?t matter if you?re an athlete trying to improve sport performance, or a bodybuilder trying to add another inch to your biceps ? free weights are superior. With that uncertainty put to rest, let?s look at why it has been so difficult in the past to answer this question.

The first issue is with the objectivity of any particular study on this subject. Let?s say you want to determine which is better for building leg strength; squats or leg exercises with machines. In 1985 there was a study (published in Research Quarterly) on this exact question. The free weight group did squats and no leg extensions, whereas the group using machines was assigned the leg extension as one of the training exercises. The test to determine which training method was superior was the leg extension, and naturally the machine group had the advantage.

The next issue is that many of those who promote machines use different protocols. Unquestionably, one of the most influential individuals in the iron game, particularly in regard to promoting machine training, was the late Arthur Jones. Because Jones believed that the resistance curves of his machines more closely matched an individual?s strength curve, he incorrectly judged that fewer sets would achieve equal or superior results. As such, when assessing the results claimed by those who promote the use of machines, you need to consider that inferior training protocols were used.

Another issue is that studies may be of insufficient duration (typically, a study may only be conducted for one college semester, as that is often the time subjects would be available), and may use beginners. However, because beginners can make excellent progress over a minimal time span, it would be more useful to have longer studies to better indicate the effectiveness of a specific training protocol.

Fortunately, considerably more research has been conducted since Arthur Jones introduced his Nautilus ?time machines? (so-called for their supposed superior efficiency) to the fields of bodybuilding, strength training and athletic fitness conditioning. One of the most significant outcomes of this new research is the answer to this question: Does the increased stability necessary to perform free weight exercises reduce their effectiveness in building strength and therefore muscle mass?

In a study published in the September 2009 issue of the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, it was found that performing free weight back squats ? compared to performing Smith machine squats ? more strongly activated the biceps femoris and gastrocnemius due to their role in stabilizing the ankle, knee and hip joints. Likewise, the free weight squat more strongly activated the vastus medialis and vastus lateralis. This is an especially important finding, because many bodybuilders mistakenly believe that the increased technical demands of the free weight squat decreases muscle fiber recruitment.

This study also supports the work of Dietmar Schmidtbleicher, who classified resistance training exercises according to their effect on neuromuscular activity. Schmidtbleicher ranked the exercises according to six levels of activation, and my Swedish colleague Rickard Nilsson and I added a seventh level. Here is how the exercises ranked:

Compound vs. Isolation Exercises: Neuromuscular Activity (NMA)

Level 1: Isolation exercise on variable resistance machine (e.g., leg extension on cam-type machine, Cybex Leg Extension, DAVID Leg Curl)
Level 2: Complex exercise on variable resistance machine (e.g., leg press on Nautilus machine, Life Fitness Incline Press machine)
Level 3: Isolation exercise with constant resistance machine (e.g., Scott pulley curls, triceps pressdown on pulley machine)
Level 4: Complex exercise with constant resistance machine (e.g., leg press on standard machine)
Level 5: Isolation exercise with free weights (e.g., Scott barbell curls, lying flyes)
Level 6: Complex exercise with free weights (snatch pulls, power cleans)
Level 7: Complex exercise with free weights (e.g., power snatch, dips on rings, rope climbing)

Although all these exercises can have a place in any athletic or physical fitness program, most training should be devoted to exercises that are level 5 and above.

As for the effectiveness of free weight exercises performed on rocker boards and other unstable devices, research by PICP Level 1 Coach Michael Wahl suggests that these variations are less effective than conventional exercises. In research for his master?s thesis, Wahl selected 16 competitive athletes who had played at college level or above. Using electromyogram (EMG) testing to measure the electrical activity in muscles, Wahl found that the brain motor patterns exhibited in performing exercises on unstable surfaces were exactly the same as those seen on stable surfaces. He concluded that because less resistance could be used due to the nature of these unstable exercises, they had to be considered inferior from a strength training perspective.

Certainly, machines have their advantages. In commercial gyms or school environments where there is minimal supervision and perhaps incompetent instruction, machines might be a better choice from a liability perspective. Many machines have selectorized weight stacks, and for those in a hurry (such as someone trying to get a workout in during a lunch hour) such convenience enables them to complete their workout faster. In addition, being able to isolate specific muscles has value, especially in the area of injury rehabilitation and structural balance training. Besides, some important exercises, such as leg curls, cannot effectively be performed with free weights.

Machines have their place, but the bottom line is that free weights are the superior method of achieving goals in body composition training, physical fitness and sports performance.

Five Steps To Manage Your Vitamin D Levels

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

1.    Get a Blood Value
Start by getting your vitamin D blood level measured. This is essential because it will give you a baseline measurement that will dictate the amount of vitamin D you should take. For example, if you have are deficient, you?ll need to use a dosing system to raise vitamin D levels. Then, I suggest a maintenance dose that is smaller. Also, remember that blood vitamin D levels often vary seasonally due to differences in the amount of sun you are exposed to.

2.    How to Get Vitamin D Measured
Your doctor should be able to measure your vitamin D. It is covered by most insurance companies, so getting it measured should not be difficult. If you don?t have insurance or prefer to get your test done privately, various lab testing companies can measure vitamin D for you. For example, the company Life Extension offers a vitamin D blood test.

Independent tests range in price from $12 to $40 in most countries. I suggest testing vitamin D once a month?this does not make you a bad person, and it allows you to adjust the dosage much more effectively.

3.    Raise Levels to 32 ng/ml (Standard Units used in U.S.) or 80 nmol/L (International Units)
If you?re levels are below 32 ng/ml, you will want to use a dosing protocol to initially raise your vitamin D levels.

For some physiological reason yet to be fully explained by science, a large bolus dose twice a week seems to work better than the same dose divided over 7 days. A ?bolus? dose is one that is prescribed to raise a blood compound such as vitamin D to an effective, therapeutic level. In other words, 35,000 IUs twice a week works better than 5,000 IUs every day for 7 days. Interestingly, the biweekly bolus dose appears to be more effective than even a much larger daily dose such as 10,000 IUs every day for 7 days.

I learned this trick from Dr. Tim Hall from Colorado Springs in May 2009 when he attended the BioSignature seminar in New York City. I have applied his tip with myself and my clients and found that it replenishes vitamin D levels more quickly than dosing it every day.

4.    Adjust Vitamin D Intake According to Blood Tests
Adjusting vitamin D intake based on blood tests may seem tricky, but let me provide an example. Let?s say I have a French Canadian weightlifter name Joe-Louis Buveuxdepepsi who presents with a vitamin D level of 14 nmol/L (about 6 ng/ml), which is abysmal. I would suggest taking 50,000 IUs twice a week for 8 weeks, and then recheck his levels. That would be 10 capsules of D3 my Excellence twice a week. If he is now at, let?s say 62 nmol/L (24.8 ng/ml), I would drop the dose to 35,000 IUs twice a week for a month, and then recheck the levels.

Remember, people?s bodies process vitamin D at various rates. Plus, the status of a number of nutrients including magnesium and zinc will influence your ability to process and raise vitamin D through supplementation. It?s essential that you test your vitamin D before taking high doses. Vitamin D toxicity is very rare, but clearly from the evidence presented above, we know that it does occur, with negative health effects. Errors in supplementation are the most common cause, indicating the importance of a reputable supplement provider and a reliable physician. Take note that in all of the cases of toxicity, participants simply needed to discontinue vitamin D intake, symptoms were reversed and health status returned to pre-overdose levels.

5.    Test Magnesium and Zinc Too For Best Results
It is a wise practice to measure red blood cell levels of magnesium and zinc at the same time that you test your vitamin D. These are essential minerals, and low levels of either will lead to poor health and a vast array of complications including endocrine imbalance, insomnia, anxiety, and poor energy. If you do not rapidly replenish vitamin D levels from the above dosing protocol, I suggest increasing the dose of magnesium, zinc, and vitamin E.

Zinc is particularly important for optimal testosterone levels, and it is synergistic to all nutrients, meaning increasing your zinc intake can help you elevate your blood vitamin D status. Adequate magnesium is critical for calcium and vitamin D absorption, which is the reason magnesium deficiency, may hinder vitamin D processing and effectiveness in the body. Additionally, there is evidence of a relationship linking low vitamin D with low vitamin E, especially in special populations such as pregnant women or the elderly.

For a must-read article on vitamin D, check out Kaisa Jaakola?s article Let?s Talk About Vitamin D.

Strength Training for Cycling

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

It amazes me that so many cyclists are still dragging their feet in accepting weight training to improve cycling performance. Despite the fact that Lance Armstrong uses a weight training program that includes power cleans and dumbbell step-ups, many cyclists believe that the best way to strength train for cycling is to cycle. So let?s look at the facts.

In a study on cyclists published in the December 2011 issue of Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, the authors found that a 16-week weight training program yielded these benefits: improved endurance capacity in a 45-minute time trial, increases in type IIA muscle fibers, and gains in maximal muscle strength and rate of force development.

From an empirical perspective, consider that endurance capacity can only take you so far. What makes a big difference in speed for many sports is being able to produce large forces for longer periods. This principle also applies to short sprints ? for example, the top speed of 100-meter sprinters is often the same year to year, but what makes them faster overall is being able to maintain top speed longer.

Consider that because you don?t always cycle in flat areas, being sufficiently strong will make a difference in being able to expend less energy challenging hills. Scientific research on Lance Armstrong?s training reveals that it increased his ability to produce a higher level of leg power without significantly increasing his bodyweight. One way to accomplish this is to focus on lower reps and concentric contractions; on this last point, Armstrong?s training included power cleans and step-ups, which by their nature don?t lend themselves to eccentric work.

Although incline leg presses would be considered sport specific for cycling because the starting positions are identical, consider that cycling strengthens the legs through a partial range of motion, thus creating structural imbalances. It would be better to work the legs through a full range of motion, such as with full squats and split squat lunges (as they also help stretch the hip flexors, which are usually tight in cyclists), along with variations of leg curls, to resolve structural imbalances. Likewise, it would be wise to perform exercises for the gastrocnemius, soleus and tibialis anterior muscles to prevent structural imbalances in the lower leg ? exercises that would not only help prevent lower extremity injuries (such as shin splints) but also contribute to pedaling power.

As for the upper body, neck and back pain are common complaints among cyclists ? especially the neck, as it is often in a position of hyperextension when racing. This is why neck exercises, back extensions and reverse hypers are a must. Further, exercises for the muscles that externally rotate the shoulders would be valuable ? power snatches or power cleans can help, but isolation exercises for the external rotators of the shoulders should also be performed. Here is a sample workout combining sports performance training with a few structural balance training that can be used twice a week for three weeks.

A. Power Clean from Mid-Thigh, 5 x 4, X0X0, rest 120 seconds
B1. Dumbbell Split Squat, 3 x 8, 2011, rest 30 seconds
B2. Reverse Hyper, 3 x 20, 20X1, rest 30 seconds
B3. Bent-Over Row, 3 x 8, 3011, rest 90 seconds
C1. Seated Calf Raise, 2 x 25, 10X0, rest 15 seconds
C2. Atlantis Tibialis Anterior Machine, 2 x 8, 10X3, rest 45 seconds (pause at the top for 3 seconds)
D1. Seated External Rotation, Elbow on Knee, 2 x 10, 3010, rest 15 seconds
D2. Atlantis Total Neck Machine, Neck Extension, 2 x 10, 2011, rest 45 seconds

This workout is only a sample, so don?t lock yourself into. Try it for three weeks, and then change the exercises. The point is to create a paradigm shift in the way you train for cycling ? a shift towards strength.

A Brief History of Periodization

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

Before we start unfolding complicated mathematical models with fancy graphs, let?s take a step back and think about what periodization really is. Periodization is simply the method used to plan your workout to achieve your goals. As applied to athletes, it?s a method of manipulating the variables of training (which I call loading parameters) so that an athlete performs their best at the appropriate times.

If you?re a football player, for example, your periodization program would not include starting a 10x10 German Volume Training squat workout the day before your team competes for a state championship. For a competitive bodybuilder, periodization means that you need to start emphasizing protocols to decrease your body fat at least a month before a major competition (and often several months before if you?re a female bodybuilder or figure competitor). Even ?boot camp? programs that claim not to use periodization do employ a form of planning, as two of the same types of workouts are usually not performed concurrently to ensure a greater variety of training stimulus.

Periodization is called for because due to time restraints you can?t work on all components of athletic fitness at the same time ? at least not to a high level. The body simply does not recognize what it is supposed to adapt to. If a weightlifter needs to improve their leg strength, one of the most effective ways to do this is by emphasizing eccentric contractions with squats. The problem is that it can take considerable time to recover from eccentric squats, perhaps 7-10 days in many cases. If you perform 8 sets of heavy eccentric back squats on Monday, you cannot expect to exceed your max snatch the following day ? in fact, the soreness from such a workout might make it uncomfortable even to bend down and grasp the bar!

A better approach would be to focus on leg strength for a few weeks, and then focus on heavy Olympic lifts. This was the problem with the so-called ?Russian Squat Program? that was popular many years ago. I heard that it was designed not for a team but for a single weightlifter whose leg strength was severely lacking, and that the lifter was supposed to cut down on the volume of snatches and clean and jerks and other aspects of lifting to avoid overtraining while performing the squat program. Likewise, one research study on college swimmers found that adding weight training to their program had no effect on swimming performance. The issue here is that the coaches added several hours of weight training to the athletes? program without reducing their training volume in swimming; swimmers are notoriously overtrained anyway, so if you want to add something to their training you need to take something away.

To give you an idea of how exercises could be periodized, here is a program that is discussed in my PICP course that is designed to increase power clean results for a beginner. Each phase builds upon the strength qualities developed in the previous phase.

Phase 1
Weeks 1-3: Standing Good Morning
Weeks 4-6: Clean Deadlift, Podium with Chains
Weeks 6-9: Snatch Pull
Weeks 10-12: Power Clean from Mid-Thigh
Week 13: Active Rest

Phase 2
Weeks 14-16: Isometronic 3-Position Deadlift
Weeks 17-19: Snatch Pull with Bands
Weeks 20-22: Clean Pull on Podium
Weeks 23-25: Power Clean from Mid-Thigh
Week 26: Active Rest

Phase 3
Weeks 27-29: Snatch Pull from Floor
Weeks 30-32: Power Clean from Floor

Although many people associate periodization with weight training, periodization can be used with energy system training as well. The movie Chariots of Fire contrasts the instinctive approach to training of a Scottish runner, who ran as he thought best for the day, to the approach of an English runner, who planned every detail of his workout and used training methods supported by scientific research available to him in that era. Today?s runners not only plan time and distance but also continually monitor their workouts with heart rate monitors.

For elite athletes it only takes about 6-8 weeks to build the aerobic system, so all that?s necessary during the rest of the year is a maintenance program until the body is ready to adapt to a higher level of V02 max. This idea is supported by a study published in 1982 in the Journal of Applied Physiology, which showed an athlete can significantly reduce training volume but still maintain aerobic capacity for several months as long as their intensity level is at a high level. The issue, again, is that you only have so much training time, so why spend it on a factor that cannot improve? My colleague Yves Nadeau, whose speedskaters won medals in four Olympics, understood this concept ? and his athletes had exceptionally high V02 max levels despite doing minimal aerobic training.

Although periodization is attributed to Russian weightlifters, Finnish cross-country skiers were responsible for introducing the early concepts of periodization. After that, Soviet weightlifting coaches came up with mathematical models for periodization; thereafter, they shared their knowledge with track and field athletes and swimmers. Swimmers shared with rowers and kayakers. Eventually every sport started coming out with their own periodization models.

In the US, many strength coaches have favored a periodization model proposed by Russian sport scientist Leonid Matveyev in 1964. This model suggests that training should gradually progress from a high volume of work performed at low intensity to high-intensity work performed at low intensity. An example of the repetition protocols for a 17-week workout program based on this model was presented as follows:

Weeks 1-6: 8-12 reps
Weeks 7-11: 5-6 reps
Weeks 12-16: 3-5 reps
Week 17: 1-2 reps

Physiologically speaking, such a workout is not effective for functional hypertrophy that will help an athlete perform well. For example, performing sets of 8-12 reps will generally develop the slower, Type I muscle fibers. Further, much of the hypertrophy developed in the first six weeks will be lost by week 17.

In recent years the trend among many strength coaches has been to use a system called nonlinear periodization, in which the repetitions vary every workout. So on Monday an athlete might do 12-15 reps, on Wednesday 6-8, and on Friday 1-3; and then repeat this series for several more weeks. The problem here, again, is that the body does not know what it is supposed to adapt to.

In the 1980s I began writing about the value of alternating between phases of accumulation and intensification, with accumulation emphasizing volume (how much work is performed) and intensification emphasizing intensity (how much weight is lifted). This model was popularized by German sport scientist Dietmar Schmidtbleicher. Here is an example of the repetition protocols for an 8-week workout program based designed to improve relative strength:

Weeks 1-2: 5 x 5 reps (accumulation)
Weeks 3-4: 6 x 2-3 reps (intensification)
Weeks 5-6: 6 x 4 reps (accumulation)
Weeks 7-8: 3 (3/2/1) reps (intensification)

One of the advantages of alternating between the two phases every two weeks is that you prevent nervous system fatigue. You also don?t lose muscle mass and energy system conditioning ? in fact, you will find that these qualities continually improve with this system.

There are many excellent books on periodization, and it is a subject that is discussed in detail in my PICP course. However, if you understand the basic concepts presented here, you will have taken a big first step in mastering the art and science of program design.

Secrets to Improving Lateral Speed

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

The ability to move laterally and change direction is essential in many sports. Although a lot of attention is paid to 40-yard-dash times, the simple fact is that in football (or any other sport for that matter) rarely does an athlete run straight ahead for more than a few yards. Most coaches and athletes recognize the importance of lateral speed, but where they may go wrong is in using gimmicks to try to improve it.

One such gimmick is a slideboard, which many strength coaches have embraced as a superior method to improve lateral speed. A standard slideboard is eight feet long by two feet wide, and has a ?stopper? at each end to push off from and break the momentum at the end of the slide. So the user can slide smoothly, the surface of the slideboard is slick, and a light coat of wax is often applied to make it even slicker, and the user wears wool socks or special booties to slide more easily.

The slideboard was made popular by Eric Heiden, a US speedskater who won an unprecedented five gold medals in the 1980 Olympics. Heiden attributed much of his record-breaking success to the slideboard, but the truth is that slideboard training is not biomechanically specific to skating, as shown by EMG-supported research that was presented at the International Skating Union. Further, slideboard training creates excessive shearing force across the knee when the body is stopped by the stoppers ? in effect, the knee is experiencing forces that are literally trying to pry it apart.

Another gimmick is using elastic tubing for lateral movement exercises, an idea that has made a lot of money for companies that make large rubber bands. One popular lateral movement drill involves attaching one end of the tubing around the waist and either having a training partner hold the other end or attaching it to an immovable object, and then jumping sideways, back and forth. The issue here is that the resistance curve is backwards because tubing only provides resistance when it is stretched.

To move quickly laterally the athlete needs to be able to apply force into the ground at the start of the movement, not at the finish when the tubing is stretched. Further, when initiating the movement back to the start, the athlete is assisted by the tubing, and this means they are applying even less force into the ground. As for the idea of tying tubing between the ankles and performing shuffling movements, this exercise also places high shearing forces on the knee.

That?s enough about gimmicks ? let?s look at a sensible approach to improving lateral speed, starting with structural balance.

Structural imbalances between the limbs are especially common with sports in which one side of the body is dominant, such as speedskating, or in which an implement is held, such as tennis, golf and fencing. These imbalances increase the risk of injury but can also lead to improper motor patterns that will affect lateral speed.

One of the keys to improving lateral speed is single-leg strength. When an athlete moves laterally or changes direction, they have to be able to control the forces their body is exposed to while supporting themselves on one leg. And because they will be moving quickly, those forces required to brake their movement can be quite high. If an athlete doesn?t have the optimal amount of eccentric strength to handle these disruptive forces, it will take them longer to stabilize their body before they can change direction ? thus decreasing lateral movement speed. With all the cutting that takes place in athletics, especially in sports such as soccer and basketball, those fractions of a second can make the difference between winning and losing or even making the team.

It?s important to perform single-leg (aka unilateral) training to strengthen muscles around the hip and knee. Exercises to promote structural knee balance are indicated for individuals who suffer from occasional or chronic knee pain and for competitive athletes who need to prevent injury. Further, knee dysfunction is often due to a weakness of one of the quadriceps muscles, usually the vastus medialis oblique (VMO).

The VMO is involved in helping the kneecap track properly, so VMO strength is critical for enabling the athlete to maintain good biomechanics when moving. Every year an estimated 20,000 high school girls in the US suffer serious knee injuries, most involving the ACL, and I believe one reason is that girls? athletic programs fail to adequately strengthen the VMO. Effective exercises for improving VMO structural balance are Poliquin step-ups, Petersen step-ups and backward sled dragging.

In addition to strengthening the VMO, strength coaches will want to use sideways sled dragging exercises as the fastest way to improve lateral speed. Lateral speed is almost always expressed in a situation where inertia has to be overcome; hence the need for load. The sled is the only practical tool that can overload hip adduction and abduction patterns in a positive, functional way. Further, sled work or tire pulls provides a precise way to measure or increase resistance in controlled increments. One reality that must face is that the surface the implements are dragged often have varied friction coefficients, hence will vary day to day.

There will always be another gimmick coming along that promises to improve an athlete?s lateral speed, but most do not deliver on their promises and can increase the risk of injury. The reality is this: lateral speed is necessary for extremely short distance, as in defending the net in volleyball?or dodging opponents in sports like rugby and American football. So applying more force with correct joint mechanics, and the ability to overcome inertia are the key elements in developing that physical quality.

Don?t be fooled ? get on the fast track to athletic success with proven strength training methods.

Identify Young Talent

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

In the United States, most children end up playing the same sports as their parents. This has many advantages, as the parents can guide them into proper training and are often more supportive when the children follow in their footsteps. The disadvantage is that if the mother or father was an exceptional athlete, this could put excessive pressure on the child. There is also the issue that the sport a parent played may not necessarily be the best one for the child. What is the best approach? Let?s take a closer look.

To ensure that their children are able to fulfill their physical potential in a sport, parents will often have them specialize in a sport at a young age. The greatest athlete in the history of weightlifting, pound-for-pound, is Naim Suleymanoglu. Although pediatric organizations in the US contend that heavy weight training should be reserved for more physically mature athletes, Suleymanoglu was breaking world records when he was 15 years old ? not junior world records, but senior world records! He went on to break 51 world records, and at his peak he snatched 150.5 kilos (331.5 pounds) and clean and jerked 188.5 kilos (415.4 pounds) weighing just 132 pounds.

As with weightlifting, many other sports have prodigies who started specialized training for their sport at an early age. Soccer superstar Freddy Adu was earning half a million dollars a year when he was 14; at the age of 17 Maria Yuryevna Sharapova won Wimbledon; and LeBron James? salary was over $4 million his first year out of high school (and this doesn?t include commercial endorsements).

Whereas the Russians, Chinese and Americans have a large athletic pool from which to draw to develop athletes, the former East Germans were especially effective at identifying young talent and bringing them to elite levels of athletic ability. In fact, I learned German in the 80s for the sole purpose of being able to translate their sports training literature, which at the time was ahead of research published in North America. The German sport selection philosophy is summarized in Dietrich Harre?s Principles of Sports Training (Ultimate Athletic Concepts, 2012) in the following statement: ?The development of competitive sport and the development of young athletes are best served if each athlete trains in that sport or discipline for which he or she is best suited and if coaches choose mainly those athletes for competitive sport who have the necessary potential.?

Harre?s textbook goes into detail on how to determine which sports a young athlete would most likely excel in. Two other excellent books are Applied Anatomy and Biomechanics in Sport, 2nd Edition, by Timothy Ackland, Bruce Elliot and John Bloomfield (Human Kinetics 2009) and Sports Talent by Jim Brown (Human Kinetics 2001). Brown?s book is the best starting point for a reader who does not have a background in sport science, and Ackland?s book is unique in that it contains many anatomical photos of elite athletes.

Early specialization may have worked for the athletes mentioned previously, and sports competition has progressed to the level that it would be difficult to reach a high level without early specialization. With some sports, such as figure skating and gymnastics, early specialization is absolutely essential to achieve proficiency. Nevertheless, for most kids, especially those who don?t display any exceptional physical gifts for a sport at a young age, it would be best to participate in multiple sports. Here are four reasons:

1. Increased risk of injury among youths. Between 1977 and 2007, the number of injuries in physical education classes increased by 150 percent. What?s more, middle school athletes accounted for 52 percent of those injuries, and the number of head injuries doubled in children of ages 5-10 years. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the highest rates of sports-related injuries occur among kids of ages 5 to 14, and every year over 3.5 million children are treated for sports-related injuries. What?s especially disturbing is that according to the National Alliance for Sports, 70 percent of kids quit league sports by the age of 13 and never play again. In one interview Al Vermeil, a professional strength coach who possesses world championship rings in football and basketball and who will be speaking at our 2012 Eleiko Strength Summit, said he was alarmed by the increasing number of sports medicine clinics in the US. One reason for this increase in injuries may be due to the increased stress on the body associated with early specialization.

2. It?s difficult to determine what sport is best for a young athlete. A child may excel in a sport because they mature early, such that their parents and coaches think this is the sport for them. Football is such a sport and possibly hockey. Malcolm Gladwell explained in his book Outliers that in Canada one of the primary reasons for success in hockey was having a birthday close to January 1st. This is because it was the cutoff date for age-class hockey programs, such that an athlete born in early January will have nearly a year more of physical maturity compared to an athlete born in late December.

3. College scouts often prefer multi-sport athletes. Often college coaches for team sports prefer athletes who excel in numerous sports. In football, often a player?s performance often is influenced by the abilities of his teammates (for example, a good offensive line will help a running back put up impressive rushing stats), and seeing how an athlete performs in other sports will give a more objective perspective of their talent. Besides, in college an athlete may wind up playing a position different from the one they played in high school (for example, if a football team has plenty of good defensive linemen, it may move some of them to the offensive line). A well-rounded athlete would probably adjust better to such changes.

4. It?s better for kids to play sports they enjoy. Even if a kid is no good at a sport, if they like it they will continue playing it. A high school athlete who is short and quick may be more suited for soccer; but if they hate soccer and love volleyball, they may be better off playing volleyball. At the very least, they are more likely to make volleyball a lifelong sport.

To achieve the highest level of sporting achievement it?s necessary to identify talent and have an athlete specialize in that sport as soon as possible. For most young athletes, however, to ensure a long and healthy athletic career it may be better to expose them to a variety of sports to find not just what they are gifted for but also what they enjoy.

Weekend Warrior Prehab

5/16/2012 5:06:58 PM

There is a popular saying among older athletes involved in the iron game: ?The older I get, the stronger I was!? It?s not that everyone who lifts weights tends to exaggerate how much they could lift or how large their biceps really were, but sometimes you have to take what they say with a grain of salt. This is all in fun, but it stops being fun when older or occasional lifters try to relive their former glory by doing too much too soon, then suffer ?weekend warrior syndrome? afterwards. That?s where prehab comes in.

Prehab is a relatively new term based on the word rehabilitation, or rehab. Whereas the goal in rehabilitation is to help athletes recover quickly from injuries, the idea behind prehab is to prevent injuries from occurring in the first place. When you think about it, one of the goals of any strength and conditioning program for sports is to prevent injuries.

Although just about any exercise is better than no exercise for the weekend warrior, workouts that focus on just sport-specific exercises may not be such a good idea. One problem with many ?boot camp? conditioning programs is that they don?t contain much in the way of eccentric training. Sled pushing, medicine ball throws, dumbbell/kettlebell swings and box jumps are fine ? but eccentric strength plays a key role in decelerating the limbs and thus providing stability. In sports that require quick changes in direction, eccentric strength is vital.

Among the popular programs for weekend warriors are those designed to get recreational athletes ready for the ski season ? these are often offered by local YMCAs. A typical protocol is twice a week for one hour; as for cost, I?ve seen programs offered at $60 for a six-week course for members and $120 for nonmembers. Not to single out the YMCA, but the quads are a key muscle group for high performance in these events, so often ski conditioning programs focus on quad exercises such as leg presses to make their programs ?sport specific.? However, if a skier?s hamstrings are weak relative to their quads ? a common condition with these athletes because downhill skiing places tremendous stress on the quads ? the knees are more susceptible to injury. Such an athlete has what I refer to as a structural imbalance. When I was given the reins of program design for the Canadian National Alpine Ski team in the late eighties, we saw a tremendous reduction in knees injuries, mainly by integrating full squats, and correcting the balance between the hamstrings and quadriceps.

Another common structural imbalance among weekend warriors is found in the vastus medialis oblique (VMO), a teardrop-shaped quadriceps muscle that is essential for helping the kneecap to track properly. In addition to helping prevent serious knee injuries, strengthening the VMO may help prevent patellar tendonitis, a chronic swelling of the tendon that connects the kneecap to the lower-leg bone, a condition that is common among weekend warriors.

For the upper body, weekend warriors need to pay special attention to the muscles that help externally rotate the shoulders, specifically the teres minor and the infraspinatus. These muscles originate on the scapula and insert on the humerus, and are two of the four muscles collectively known as the rotator cuff. Although these muscles are relatively small, they are important for stabilizing the shoulder and therefore keeping the athlete healthy. As such, the structural balance program taught in my PICP program includes a specific test for these muscles and our coaches are shown how to correct these weaknesses.

A sound stretching program may help keep weekend warriors injury-free. One type that I highly recommend is Fascial Stretch Therapy?, a method developed by Ann and Chris Frederick. With this technique a client is placed on a treatment table and the practitioner moves the client?s limbs in specific ranges of motion. Straps are used to stabilize the limbs not being worked so the practitioner can work on specific muscles. This technique enables the practitioner to stretch not only the muscles but also the fascia, which is connective tissue in the body that plays a key role in providing stability to the body.

Another great system to help improve joint range of motion is called PIMST, or Poliquin Instant Muscle Strengthening Techniques. PIMST uses a myriad of bodywork techniques, such as acupressure points, that produces immediate increases in flexibility. It also has numerous benefits, including fascial release and improvement of neural drive. I?m not a fan of stretching athletes because it consumes too time and energy, and PIMST provides an effective alternative.

I also recommend weekend warriors become friends with someone who practices Active Release Techniques Treatment?, a soft-tissue method developed by Dr. Mike Leahy that helps restore muscle function and is especially effective for treating common injuries such as shin splints and hamstring injuries. Weekend warriors should also find a practitioner who is trained in using the Fascial Abrasion Tool developed by Dr. Mark Scappaticci. This treatment is relatively painless and helps identify and treat fascial restrictions that could affect sports performance and lead to injury.

Sports should be fun at any age, but preventable injuries can ruin a good time. If you?re a weekend warrior, make sure you?re prepared to play.